The human brain may become a "battlefield" in future wars, including "pharmacological land mines" and drones directed by mind control, a new report has predicted. In a report commissioned by the US Defence Intelligence Agency, leading scientists were asked to examine how a greater understanding of the brain over the next 20 years is likely to drive the development of new medicines and technologies. According to the Guardian newspaper, US intelligence officials were told that rapid advances in neuroscience could have a dramatic impact on national security and the way in which future wars are fought. According to the report, they found several areas in which progress could have a profound impact, including behaviour-altering drugs, scanners that can interpret a person's state of mind and devices capable of boosting senses such as hearing and vision. Bullets may be replaced with "pharmacological land mines" that release drugs to incapacitate soldiers on contact, while scanners and other electronic devices could be developed to identify suspects from their brain activity and even disrupt their ability to tell lies, the report says. Greater understanding of the brain's workings is also expected to usher in new devices that link directly to the brain, either to allow operators to control machinery with their minds, such as flying unmanned reconnaissance drones, or to boost their natural senses. "Experiments indicate that the advantages of these devices are such that human operators will be greatly enhanced for things like photo reconnaissance and so on," Kit Green, the chairman of the report committee, was quoted as saying by the British daily on Thursday.
Sunday, August 17, 2008
Thursday, August 14, 2008
TECHNICAL ARTICLE
Closed Frame Thread Rollers
In recent years, planetary thread rollers have been adapted to reduce labor and handling, roll smaller batches of higher-quality parts and to allow use by less skilled operators.
The planetary thread rolling system has come a long way since the 1970s and 1980s. In the past, the planetary system was used for rolling commercial and industrial products not requiring high dimensional and quality standards. These products are now made in China and other countries that offer reasonable quality and inexpensive prices, allowing a wider range of customers to purchase products that were once out of reach.
The fact that many standard fasteners are no longer manufactured n the USA and the rest of the western world has created a positive move forward in parts development and R&D of processes, which has resulted in more sophisticated and better quality products. The planetary system that was once used for rolling simple parts is now evolving to accommodate the changing needs of the fastener industry. In the last six years, Videx has been concentrating on developing and adapting this system to reduce labor and handling, roll smaller batches of high-quality parts and to allow less skilled operators to recall machine settings with ease.
Quality of Thread
Thread quality was the major issue and the key to the success of the Videx VA line of thread rollers. Videx has identified a problem in the uncontrolled feed of the blanks into the thread rolling dies in the planetary system. It has developed anew feed system that squares and feeds the blanks while they are already in motion and turns with the rotary die at the same linear speed. n the new system, the blanks move farther before they are fed in between the thread rolling dies. A newly developed feed system has a longer stroke and is more precise with a uniform feed force along the feed stroke. To achieve all these requirements, we eliminated the feed slide and the spring that required constant maintenance to keep them accurate. In the new system, the blanks are fed by a pivot arm and a pneumatic piston. This system is virtually maintenance free. The thread quality achieved with the above system enabled us to develop a few models for the automotive and aero space industries, all based on high quality requirements.
Dual-Spindle Thread Rollers: The first machine designed is a thread roller with two spindles (VA-K), for rolling knurls and threads on wheel bolts in two consecutive operations, done one after the other. The VA-20-K has two rolling stations, capable of performing two rolling operations on the same part. The machine can be used for the following applications:
• Knurl and thread rolling of wheel bolts
• Knurl and thread rolling of socket head cap screws.
• Chamfer, groove and thread standard and long bolts.
The two rolling heads are independently set and matched, eliminating any influence of one rolling operation on the other. The two rolling operations are done one after the other, while the blanks stay oriented in the feed rails, after the first rolling station operation and prior to the second rolling operation. This construction assures that there is no damage to the thread.
The VA-20-K dual head thread rollers solve problems such as the following:
• Separate operations assure a better quality of each rolled operation. It also helps to better control the separate operations and the tooling used.
• Speed achieved is higher than in any other system because the second operation does not slow the machine.
• By saving on handling, the VA-20-K eliminates the possibility of mixing parts, such as heat-treated parts with non-heat-treated parts.
• System allows rolling with inexpensive tooling, while having full control over the quality of each rolling operation. When a tool has to be replaced, it can be done in minutes.
The production rate for example, on standard wheel bolts is 320 to 500 ppm. Both threading stations havehydraulic clamping of thread rolling dies, zero-taper device for parallel threads and micrometric thread pressure screws. Other standard features include AC speed controller, automatic air shutoff and dual operator control panel on both sides of the machine for convenient and safe operation. The control panel at the back is also used when setting up the feeder.
T-Bolt Thread Rollers: Another model that was developed as a consequence of the new feed system was the VA-T series for rolling T-bolts. These thread rolling machines incorporate special T-bolt feeders that were developed in the USA. Combined with the long stroke feed mechanism, this special feeder allows the feeding of T-bolts one by one into the thread rolling dies at speeds of 100 to 200 ppm
Thread Rollers for Pre-Hardened Fasteners: The real breakthrough in the furthering of the planetary system was achieved last year. Based on the increasing market need to roll harder materials and longer threads, Videx developed a line of machinery with 200 mm (8") and 300 mm (12") thread length capacity To overcome deflection problems, we used a technique of a closed structure, creating a closed frame between the segment die and the rotary die. This construction is similar to the construction of a two-roll machine, and enables Videx to offer machines with long thread capacity, that roll perfectly parallel threads on any length of parts and any material hardness. An unexpected result of the supported spindle construction, which was discovered by customers, was a considerable increase in the life of a thread rolling die especially when rolling pre-hardened parts, between 25 Rc and 36 Rc .This improvement in die life is now opening new opportunities for the planetary system, and Videx has decided to offer the closed structure thread rollers as an additional line to its commercial thread rollers. This line was demonstrated for the first time at the wire 2002 show, rolling pre-hardened M-14threads at a rate of 250 ppm The closed structure thread rollers can be used for the following applications:
• Thread rolling of pre-hardened fasteners.
• Straightening/rolling of long screws after heat treating.
• Thread rolling of long bolts to 350 mm (13.7") under head.
• Rolling of hard to roll forms such as Acme threads.
• Re-rolling of hardened fasteners.
• Feeding/rolling of hard to feed and grip parts like flanged bolts or parts with an upset under or above the head.
• Double-end thread rolling of headed parts under or above the head.
Dual Station (Single Spindle) Thread Rollers: The next step in machine design was the creation of a thread roller with a supported spindle and two rolling stations. This machine was designed for an American company that was looking for a thread roller that can roll long parts, with a thread and a chamfer above the head
Emphasis
Videx Machine Engineering Ltd., offers fully automated machines for the production of a variety of bolts and studs including magazine-feed thread rollers and bending machines. Also offered are planetary thread and form rollers for headed parts, various bolts, pipe plugs, etc. as well as planetary thread rolling dies. Videx also provides straightening and cutoff machines for short and long parts, construction steel and scaled wire models. designed to roll T-bolts, long screws and standard screws. The machine’s two rolling stations are mounted at a fixed distance from each other. The upper station accepts work pieces which are rolled above the head and the bottom station accepts standard screws, T-Bolts and long parts that are supported on the upper station and are rolled in the bottom station. The machine is equipped with two sets of feed rails and two floating feed arms, that can be positioned anywhere along the introduction shaft, for feeding long blanks on both sides at the same time. This feature is especially important when rolling long parts that should be fed both in the thread area and in the head area. The two rolling stations are independently set. Each one of the rolling stations has a separate thread pressure adjustment with hydraulic clamping and micrometric screws.
Additionally, the double station (single spindle) thread rolling machine can be equipped with a chamfer rolling attachment upon request of the customer. The VA line is also equipped with automatic air shutoff systems, that turn off the air supply to the feeder when it is not working and to the feed rails when the machine is not operating.
In Conclusion
The thread rolling world is in transition, with higher quality demands in many industries and tighter profit margins. In addition to the recent technological advantages, the prices of these machines have been kept highly affordable to protect your bottom line. For more details on planetary thread rolling machines
The planetary thread rolling system has come a long way since the 1970s and 1980s. In the past, the planetary system was used for rolling commercial and industrial products not requiring high dimensional and quality standards. These products are now made in China and other countries that offer reasonable quality and inexpensive prices, allowing a wider range of customers to purchase products that were once out of reach.
The fact that many standard fasteners are no longer manufactured n the USA and the rest of the western world has created a positive move forward in parts development and R&D of processes, which has resulted in more sophisticated and better quality products. The planetary system that was once used for rolling simple parts is now evolving to accommodate the changing needs of the fastener industry. In the last six years, Videx has been concentrating on developing and adapting this system to reduce labor and handling, roll smaller batches of high-quality parts and to allow less skilled operators to recall machine settings with ease.
Quality of Thread
Thread quality was the major issue and the key to the success of the Videx VA line of thread rollers. Videx has identified a problem in the uncontrolled feed of the blanks into the thread rolling dies in the planetary system. It has developed anew feed system that squares and feeds the blanks while they are already in motion and turns with the rotary die at the same linear speed. n the new system, the blanks move farther before they are fed in between the thread rolling dies. A newly developed feed system has a longer stroke and is more precise with a uniform feed force along the feed stroke. To achieve all these requirements, we eliminated the feed slide and the spring that required constant maintenance to keep them accurate. In the new system, the blanks are fed by a pivot arm and a pneumatic piston. This system is virtually maintenance free. The thread quality achieved with the above system enabled us to develop a few models for the automotive and aero space industries, all based on high quality requirements.
Dual-Spindle Thread Rollers: The first machine designed is a thread roller with two spindles (VA-K), for rolling knurls and threads on wheel bolts in two consecutive operations, done one after the other. The VA-20-K has two rolling stations, capable of performing two rolling operations on the same part. The machine can be used for the following applications:
• Knurl and thread rolling of wheel bolts
• Knurl and thread rolling of socket head cap screws.
• Chamfer, groove and thread standard and long bolts.
The two rolling heads are independently set and matched, eliminating any influence of one rolling operation on the other. The two rolling operations are done one after the other, while the blanks stay oriented in the feed rails, after the first rolling station operation and prior to the second rolling operation. This construction assures that there is no damage to the thread.
The VA-20-K dual head thread rollers solve problems such as the following:
• Separate operations assure a better quality of each rolled operation. It also helps to better control the separate operations and the tooling used.
• Speed achieved is higher than in any other system because the second operation does not slow the machine.
• By saving on handling, the VA-20-K eliminates the possibility of mixing parts, such as heat-treated parts with non-heat-treated parts.
• System allows rolling with inexpensive tooling, while having full control over the quality of each rolling operation. When a tool has to be replaced, it can be done in minutes.
The production rate for example, on standard wheel bolts is 320 to 500 ppm. Both threading stations havehydraulic clamping of thread rolling dies, zero-taper device for parallel threads and micrometric thread pressure screws. Other standard features include AC speed controller, automatic air shutoff and dual operator control panel on both sides of the machine for convenient and safe operation. The control panel at the back is also used when setting up the feeder.
T-Bolt Thread Rollers: Another model that was developed as a consequence of the new feed system was the VA-T series for rolling T-bolts. These thread rolling machines incorporate special T-bolt feeders that were developed in the USA. Combined with the long stroke feed mechanism, this special feeder allows the feeding of T-bolts one by one into the thread rolling dies at speeds of 100 to 200 ppm
Thread Rollers for Pre-Hardened Fasteners: The real breakthrough in the furthering of the planetary system was achieved last year. Based on the increasing market need to roll harder materials and longer threads, Videx developed a line of machinery with 200 mm (8") and 300 mm (12") thread length capacity To overcome deflection problems, we used a technique of a closed structure, creating a closed frame between the segment die and the rotary die. This construction is similar to the construction of a two-roll machine, and enables Videx to offer machines with long thread capacity, that roll perfectly parallel threads on any length of parts and any material hardness. An unexpected result of the supported spindle construction, which was discovered by customers, was a considerable increase in the life of a thread rolling die especially when rolling pre-hardened parts, between 25 Rc and 36 Rc .This improvement in die life is now opening new opportunities for the planetary system, and Videx has decided to offer the closed structure thread rollers as an additional line to its commercial thread rollers. This line was demonstrated for the first time at the wire 2002 show, rolling pre-hardened M-14threads at a rate of 250 ppm The closed structure thread rollers can be used for the following applications:
• Thread rolling of pre-hardened fasteners.
• Straightening/rolling of long screws after heat treating.
• Thread rolling of long bolts to 350 mm (13.7") under head.
• Rolling of hard to roll forms such as Acme threads.
• Re-rolling of hardened fasteners.
• Feeding/rolling of hard to feed and grip parts like flanged bolts or parts with an upset under or above the head.
• Double-end thread rolling of headed parts under or above the head.
Dual Station (Single Spindle) Thread Rollers: The next step in machine design was the creation of a thread roller with a supported spindle and two rolling stations. This machine was designed for an American company that was looking for a thread roller that can roll long parts, with a thread and a chamfer above the head
Emphasis
Videx Machine Engineering Ltd., offers fully automated machines for the production of a variety of bolts and studs including magazine-feed thread rollers and bending machines. Also offered are planetary thread and form rollers for headed parts, various bolts, pipe plugs, etc. as well as planetary thread rolling dies. Videx also provides straightening and cutoff machines for short and long parts, construction steel and scaled wire models. designed to roll T-bolts, long screws and standard screws. The machine’s two rolling stations are mounted at a fixed distance from each other. The upper station accepts work pieces which are rolled above the head and the bottom station accepts standard screws, T-Bolts and long parts that are supported on the upper station and are rolled in the bottom station. The machine is equipped with two sets of feed rails and two floating feed arms, that can be positioned anywhere along the introduction shaft, for feeding long blanks on both sides at the same time. This feature is especially important when rolling long parts that should be fed both in the thread area and in the head area. The two rolling stations are independently set. Each one of the rolling stations has a separate thread pressure adjustment with hydraulic clamping and micrometric screws.
Additionally, the double station (single spindle) thread rolling machine can be equipped with a chamfer rolling attachment upon request of the customer. The VA line is also equipped with automatic air shutoff systems, that turn off the air supply to the feeder when it is not working and to the feed rails when the machine is not operating.
In Conclusion
The thread rolling world is in transition, with higher quality demands in many industries and tighter profit margins. In addition to the recent technological advantages, the prices of these machines have been kept highly affordable to protect your bottom line. For more details on planetary thread rolling machines
Sunday, August 10, 2008
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Welding technology has made a great revolution in industrial technology. In that Arc welding was the first one.
Friday, June 20, 2008
Steam power
The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution; however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.
The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used as in numerous water works and tried in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The miner's Friend), but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions.
Newcomen's steam powered atmospheric engine was the first practical engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution
The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced by Thomas Newcomen from 1719. Newcomen apparently conceived his machine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent.[26] Newcomen's engine appears to have been based on Papin's experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by of a vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-acting.
A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722 ,Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.
James Watt
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. With the close collaboration Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs.
Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5 kW).
The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Towards the turn of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.
In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent, the steam engine underwent many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers.
The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used as in numerous water works and tried in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The miner's Friend), but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions.
Newcomen's steam powered atmospheric engine was the first practical engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution
The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced by Thomas Newcomen from 1719. Newcomen apparently conceived his machine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent.[26] Newcomen's engine appears to have been based on Papin's experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by of a vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-acting.
A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722 ,Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.
James Watt
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. With the close collaboration Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs.
Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5 kW).
The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Towards the turn of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.
In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent, the steam engine underwent many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers.
Thursday, June 19, 2008
Technology and Leisure in Britain after 1850
Technology changed leisure in Victorian Britain. Although the railway created steel barriers by increasing separating the classes, it also encouraged the popularity of the excursion. Work holidays also added to the establishment of the seaside resort until the cost of rail travel was increased specifically to restrict the more rowdy elements of the working class from travelling to the seaside. A text about Brighton explains:The railway company was eventually persuaded in the late 1860s, after pressure from the respectable residents, to effect a discrete revision of the excursion traffic. The price of the day return ticket was raised which together with the growth of attractive alternative destinations on the coast improved greatly the class of people who patronised the town in the summer months.
The demand for seaside resorts after 1850 either increased the size of or developed new coastal towns. Workers in Yorkshire textile industries motivated the development of Blackpool as popular seaside facilities with evident commercial potential.
New technology like the steam press caused an increase in the consumption of pulp fiction, mainly purchased by the working classes, and cheap newspaper further advanced leisure publicity. Similarly, the invention of the bicycle not only enabled excursions and cheap modes of transport, it had a great effect upon women. Their use of the bicycle as an accepted leisure practice freed many women from restrictive clothing. The bicycle also led to calls for the improvement and building of better roads, which in turn affected the Victorian Town.
A Tight-rope Walker and Music Hall from Jerrold and Doré's London
[Click on thumbnails for larger images.]
Commercialisation of leisure by the latter quarter of the nineteenth century became an increasingly influential factor. Music Halls roots in the crude localised "free and easies" were often commented upon by moral reformers (usually in the press), for to them it represented all the worst accesses of leisure — namely, drunkenness, obscenity and sensuality. George Morgan's Canterbury Hall was the first large-scale music hall, and halls grew in splendour and sought to attract a more prosperous class. With the eventual patronage of a better clientele the music hall invaded the suburbs, and the businessmen Moss and Stoll greatly advanced this trend. Here the press again was used to attract potential customers, the hegemony of acts began to develop and the concept of the star was born. Charles Chaplain and Gracie Fields are both examples of this new star phenomena, soon to be projected to new highest by the cinema, which in turn developed from the music hall. The publication of popular songs became big business, employing many lower-middle-class song writers. By the 1880s the music hall had become so respectable that in many towns it rivaled the town hall and other civic buildings. Another sign of the increasing the respectabilty of music hall and theatre appears in the fact that that churches often built extensions to hold amateur dramatics.
The latter nineteenth century commercialisation and mass production produced many familiar commodities: the post card, fish and chips, ice-cream, cigarettes, mineral water and the teacup. The Victorian town was the mould which contained all these fermenting elements, both reshaping leisure and being reshaped by this process of leisure revolution.
The Development of Leisure in Britain, 1700-1850
The Development of Leisure in Britain after 1850
References
Bailey, P.C. Music Hall The Business of Pleasure. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. 1986.
Bailey, P.C. Leisure, Culture and the Historian. Leisure Studies 8 E.& F.N. Spon Ltd. 1989. Pp. 109-122.
Cunningham, H. Leisure in the Industrial Revolution c1780-c1880. London: Croom Helm. 1980.
Cunningham, H. Leisure, in The Working Class England, 1875-1914. London: Croom Helm. 1985.
Leader, A. Culture Theory and Popular Culture. Brighton: Harvester/Wheatshed. 1974.
Lowerson, J.& Myerscough, J. Time to Spare in Victorian England. Harvester Press. 1977.
Robbinson, K. Nineteenth-Century Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1988.
Thompson, E.P. Customs in Common. Chapter 8 "Rough Music." Pp. 497-531.
Walton, J.K. The English Seaside Resort. London: St. Martins Press. 1983.
Wednesday, June 18, 2008
Lifelong Learning
Educating Mom
Why single parents may be the most crucial undergraduate demographic
Why single parents may be the most crucial undergraduate demographic
After dropping out of Florida Atlantic University in 2002, Vivian Vo's decision to return to the classroom five years later was fueled by the very thing that made her leave in the first place -- her daughter. Completing her bachelor's degree in fashion design and marketing from American Intercontinental University in October 2007, Vo landed a position as a design assistant for uniform supplier Cintas before she had turned the tassel."The major reason I left school was because of my pregnancy. ... I chose to go back in order to provide a better future for my daughter and to become a good teacher for her," said the 26-year-old mother. Vo isn't the only single mom dedicated to conquering employment, education and child rearing in a single bound. Despite skyrocketing tuition costs and federal financial aid cuts, the Department of Education reports that there are twice as many single parents enrolled in higher education as there were just 10 years ago.
The spike in single-parent grads can be, in part, chalked up to necessity. As the pay gap between workers with college degrees and those without steadily widens, an increasing number of single parents simply have to gain higher-education credentials in order to stay afloat. Unfortunately, many still sink, and many of them are women. A 2006 census poll shows that more than half of all U.S. families currently living below the poverty line are headed by single moms. More parents, including Vo, are finding that cracking the books is one of the surest ways to gain financial security. A second development, said Jill Sullivan, director of the Keys to Degrees program at Endicott College in Beverly, Mass., is that universities and colleges are slowly beginning to recognize single moms as an underserved population. "[Single-parent students are] trying to balance work and going to school and paying for day care and it's hard," Sullivan said. "College is usually the first thing that these parents would give up and we're trying to help."
Keys to Degrees is one of a handful of residential college programs nationwide aimed at keeping single parents in the classroom. In addition to receiving specialized child-friendly on-campus housing, free day care and a scholarship worth up to half of the yearly tuition, Endicott's nine Keys to Degrees parent-students also receive access to bimonthly parent support meetings and playgroups for the children. Single-parent programs like Endicott's and the one at Champlain College in Burlington, Vt., aim to make an impact that extends far beyond both the grads and their immediate families. A recent survey conducted by American Intercontinental University shows that 80 percent of single moms between the ages of 18 and 29 would like to go back to the books. However, family and financial obstacles prevent all but 13 percent from getting there
Sullivan stresses the idea that by helping these students finish school, the schools are helping them gain financial independence that might not come easy without the education. She scoffs at the stereotype of the welfare-dependent single parent. "If the state would help them get through the education system, they're off the system after four years because they'll have the degree," she said. For those that do make it past the admissions gate, the outlook is promising according to Sue Lawrence, executive director of the Jeannette Rankin Foundation, a nonprofit agency based in Athens, Ga., that provides scholarships to women aged 35 and above.
"Once they actually get into the classroom, we know that women with dependents are very serious about their studies," said Lawrence. "These women aren't going to school so that they can figure out what they want to be in life. They go because they very passionately want to provide for their families and give back to their communities." Giving back may be precisely what makes the single mother such a critical demographic. Besides breaking the cycle of poverty, studies show that single moms who return to school frequently gravitate toward careers in areas such as education, health care and social work -- fields that are anticipated to face a critical worker shortage within the next 10 years. "I'd say that 75 to 80 percent of the women we award scholarships to choose a field like teaching or legal services, a field where they can make a contribution," said Lawrence. "These women want careers that are helping society in some way because it's not about them, they're not just going to school for themselves."
Whether it's staying above the poverty line, filling an upcoming labor gap or simply being a role model for their children, two things about single moms are clear -- there's a lot riding on their career choices and the odds are against them. For Vo, those factors are only further proof that her choice to invest in her education was the right one. Vo makes it clear that it was hard work, but a valuable investment: "There are days that you're working and you're stressed, but in the end it's worth it because you're working towards a goal that's going to provide a much better future."
The spike in single-parent grads can be, in part, chalked up to necessity. As the pay gap between workers with college degrees and those without steadily widens, an increasing number of single parents simply have to gain higher-education credentials in order to stay afloat. Unfortunately, many still sink, and many of them are women. A 2006 census poll shows that more than half of all U.S. families currently living below the poverty line are headed by single moms. More parents, including Vo, are finding that cracking the books is one of the surest ways to gain financial security. A second development, said Jill Sullivan, director of the Keys to Degrees program at Endicott College in Beverly, Mass., is that universities and colleges are slowly beginning to recognize single moms as an underserved population. "[Single-parent students are] trying to balance work and going to school and paying for day care and it's hard," Sullivan said. "College is usually the first thing that these parents would give up and we're trying to help."
Keys to Degrees is one of a handful of residential college programs nationwide aimed at keeping single parents in the classroom. In addition to receiving specialized child-friendly on-campus housing, free day care and a scholarship worth up to half of the yearly tuition, Endicott's nine Keys to Degrees parent-students also receive access to bimonthly parent support meetings and playgroups for the children. Single-parent programs like Endicott's and the one at Champlain College in Burlington, Vt., aim to make an impact that extends far beyond both the grads and their immediate families. A recent survey conducted by American Intercontinental University shows that 80 percent of single moms between the ages of 18 and 29 would like to go back to the books. However, family and financial obstacles prevent all but 13 percent from getting there
Sullivan stresses the idea that by helping these students finish school, the schools are helping them gain financial independence that might not come easy without the education. She scoffs at the stereotype of the welfare-dependent single parent. "If the state would help them get through the education system, they're off the system after four years because they'll have the degree," she said. For those that do make it past the admissions gate, the outlook is promising according to Sue Lawrence, executive director of the Jeannette Rankin Foundation, a nonprofit agency based in Athens, Ga., that provides scholarships to women aged 35 and above.
"Once they actually get into the classroom, we know that women with dependents are very serious about their studies," said Lawrence. "These women aren't going to school so that they can figure out what they want to be in life. They go because they very passionately want to provide for their families and give back to their communities." Giving back may be precisely what makes the single mother such a critical demographic. Besides breaking the cycle of poverty, studies show that single moms who return to school frequently gravitate toward careers in areas such as education, health care and social work -- fields that are anticipated to face a critical worker shortage within the next 10 years. "I'd say that 75 to 80 percent of the women we award scholarships to choose a field like teaching or legal services, a field where they can make a contribution," said Lawrence. "These women want careers that are helping society in some way because it's not about them, they're not just going to school for themselves."
Whether it's staying above the poverty line, filling an upcoming labor gap or simply being a role model for their children, two things about single moms are clear -- there's a lot riding on their career choices and the odds are against them. For Vo, those factors are only further proof that her choice to invest in her education was the right one. Vo makes it clear that it was hard work, but a valuable investment: "There are days that you're working and you're stressed, but in the end it's worth it because you're working towards a goal that's going to provide a much better future."
Monday, June 9, 2008
Child labour
The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chance of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the industrial revolution (although infant mortality rates were improved markedly).[30][31] There was still limited opportunity for education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries.
Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Before the passing of laws protecting children, many were forced to work in terrible conditions for much lower pay than their elders.
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines[32] and textile factories [33] and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe up to the 20th century.
Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Before the passing of laws protecting children, many were forced to work in terrible conditions for much lower pay than their elders.
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines[32] and textile factories [33] and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe up to the 20th century.
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